RFC 7476
Information-Centric Networking: Baseline Scenarios
Pages: 45
Informational
Informational
Part 3 of 3 – Pages 27 to 45
3. Cross-Scenario Considerations
This section discusses considerations that span multiple scenarios.3.1. Multiply Connected Nodes and Economics
The evolution of, in particular, wireless networking technologies has resulted in a convergence of the bandwidth and capabilities of various different types of network. Today, a leading-edge mobile telephone or tablet computer will typically be able to access a Wi-Fi access point, a 4G cellular network, and the latest generation of Bluetooth local networking. Until recently, a node would usually have a clear favorite network technology appropriate to any given environment. The choice would, for example, be primarily determined by the available bandwidth with cost as a secondary determinant. Furthermore, it is normally the case that a device only uses one of the technologies at a time for any particular application. It seems likely that this situation will change so that nodes are able to use all of the available technologies in parallel. This will be further encouraged by the development of new capabilities in cellular networks including Small Cell Networks [SCN] and Heterogeneous Networks [HetNet]. Consequently, mobile devices will have similar choices to wired nodes attached to multiple service providers allowing "multihoming" via the various different infrastructure networks as well as potential direct access to other mobile nodes via Bluetooth or a more capable form of ad hoc Wi-Fi. Infrastructure networks are generally under the control of separate economic entities that may have different policies about the information of an ICN deployed within their network caches. As ICN shifts the focus from nodes to information objects, the interaction
between networks will likely evolve to capitalize on data location independence, efficient and scalable in-network named object availability, and access via multiple paths. These interactions become critical in evaluating the technical and economic impact of ICN architectural choices, as noted in [ArgICN]. Beyond simply adding diversity in deployment options, these networks have the potential to alter the incentives among existing (and future, we may add) network players, as noted in [EconICN]. Moreover, such networks enable more numerous internetwork relationships where exchange of information may be conditioned on a set of multilateral policies. For example, shared SCNs are emerging as a cost-effective way to address coverage of complex environments such as sports stadiums, large office buildings, malls, etc. Such networks are likely to be a complex mix of different cellular and WLAN access technologies (such as HSPA, LTE, and Wi-Fi) as well as ownership models. It is reasonable to assume that access to content generated in such networks may depend on contextual information such as the subscription type, timing, and location of both the owner and requester of the content. The availability of such contextual information across diverse networks can lead to network inefficiencies unless data management can benefit from an information-centric approach. The "Event with Large Crowds" demonstrator created by the SAIL project investigated this kind of scenario; more details are available in [SAIL-B3]. Jacobson et al. [CCN] include interactions between networks in their overall system design and mention both "an edge-driven, bottom-up incentive structure" and techniques based on evolutions of existing mechanisms both for ICN router discovery by the end-user and for interconnecting between Autonomous Systems (ASes). For example, a BGP extension for domain-level content prefix advertisement can be used to enable efficient interconnection between ASes. Liu et al. [MLDHT] proposed to address the "suffix-hole" issue found in prefix- based name aggregation through the use of a combination of Bloom- filter-based aggregation and multi-level DHT. Name aggregation has been discussed for a flat naming design, for example, in [NCOA], in which the authors note that based on estimations in [DONA] flat naming may not require aggregation. This is a point that calls for further study. Scenarios evaluating name aggregation, or lack thereof, should take into account the amount of state (e.g., size of routing tables) maintained in edge routers as well as network efficiency (e.g., amount of traffic generated).
+---------------+ +---------->| Popular Video | | +---------------+ | ^ ^ | | | | +-+-+ $0/MB +-+-+ | | A +-------+ B | | ++--+ +-+-+ | | ^ ^ | | $8/MB | | | | $10/MB | v | | v +-+-+ $0/MB +--+---------+--+ | D +---------+ C | +---+ +---------------+ Figure 5. Relationships and Transit Costs between Networks A to D DiBenedetto et al. [RP-NDN] study policy knobs made available by NDN to network operators. New policies that are not feasible in the current Internet are described, including a "cache sharing peers" policy, where two peers have an incentive to share content cached in, but not originating from, their respective network. The simple example used in the investigation considers several networks and associated transit costs, as shown in Figure 5 (based on Figure 1 of [RP-NDN]). Agyapong and Sirbu [EconICN] further establish that ICN approaches should incorporate features that foster (new) business relationships. For example, publishers should be able to indicate their willingness to partake in the caching market, proper reporting should be enabled to avoid fraud, and content should be made cacheable as much as possible to increase cache hit ratios. Kutscher et al. [SAIL-B3] enable network interactions in the NetInf architecture using a name resolution service at domain edge routers and a BGP-like routing system in the NetInf Default-Free Zone. Business models and incentives are studied in [SAIL-A7] and [SAIL-A8], including scenarios where the access network provider (or a virtual CDN) guarantees QoS to end users using ICN. Figure 6 illustrates a typical scenario topology from this work that involves an interconnectivity provider.
+----------+ +-----------------+ +------+ | Content | | Access Network/ | | End | | Provider +---->| ICN Provider +---->| User | +----------+ +-+-------------+-+ +------+ | | | | v v +-------------------+ +----------------+ +------+ | Interconnectivity | | Access Network | | End | | Provider +---->| Provider +------>| User | +-------------------+ +----------------+ +------+ Figure 6. Setup and Operating Costs of Network Entities Jokela et al. [LIPSIN] propose a two-layer approach where additional rendezvous systems and topology formation functions are placed logically above multiple networks and enable advertising and routing content between them. Visala et al. [LANES] further describe an ICN architecture based on similar principles, which, notably, relies on a hierarchical DHT-based rendezvous interconnect. Rajahalme et al. [PSIRP1] describe a rendezvous system using both a BGP-like routing protocol at the edge and a DHT-based overlay at the core. Their evaluation model is centered around policy-compliant path stretch, latency introduced by overlay routing, caching efficacy, and load distribution. Rajahalme et al. [ICCP] point out that ICN architectural changes may conflict with the current tier-based peering model. For example, changes leading to shorter paths between ISPs are likely to meet resistance from Tier-1 ISPs. Rajahalme [IDMcast] shows how incentives can help shape the design of specific ICN aspects, and in [IDArch] he presents a modeling approach to exploit these incentives. This includes a network model that describes the relationship between Autonomous Systems based on data inferred from the current Internet, a traffic model taking into account business factors for each AS, and a routing model integrating the valley-free model and policy compliance. A typical scenario topology is illustrated in Figure 7, which is redrawn here based on Figure 1 of [ICCP]. Note that it relates well with the topology illustrated in Figure 1 of this document.
o-----o +-----+ J +-----+ | o--*--o | | * | o--+--o * o--+--o | H +-----------+ I | o-*-*-o * o-*-*-o * * * * * ****** ******* * ******* ******* * * * * * o--*--o o*-*-*o o--*--o | E +--------+ F +---------+ G + o-*-*-o o-----o o-*-*-o * * * * ****** ******* ****** ****** * * * * o--*--o o--*--o o--*--o o--*--o | A | | B +-----------+ C | | D | o-----o o--+--o o--+--o o----+o | | ^^ | route data | data | data || | to | | || | data o---v--o o---v--o o++--v-o | User | | User | | Data | o------o o------o o------o Legend: ***** Transit link +---+ Peering link +---> Data delivery or route to data Figure 7. Tier-Based Set of Interconnections between AS A to J To sum up, the evaluation of ICN architectures across multiple network types should include a combination of technical and economic aspects, capturing their various interactions. These scenarios aim to illustrate scalability, efficiency, and manageability, as well as traditional and novel network policies. Moreover, scenarios in this category should specifically address how different actors have proper incentives, not only in a pure ICN realm, but also during the migration phase towards this final state.3.2. Energy Efficiency
ICN has prominent features that can be taken advantage of in order to significantly reduce the energy footprint of future communication networks. Of course, one can argue that specific ICN network elements may consume more energy than today's conventional network
equipment due to the potentially higher energy demands for named-data processing en route. On balance, however, ICN introduces an architectural approach that may compensate on the whole and can even achieve higher energy efficiency rates when compared to the host- centric paradigm. We elaborate on the energy efficiency potential of ICN based on three categories of ICN characteristics. Namely, we point out that a) ICN does not rely solely on end-to-end communication, b) ICN enables ubiquitous caching, and c) ICN brings awareness of user requests (as well as their corresponding responses) at the network layer thus permitting network elements to better schedule their transmission patterns. First, ICN does not mandate perpetual end-to-end communication, which introduces a whole range of energy consumption inefficiencies due to the extensive signaling, especially in the case of mobile and wirelessly connected devices. This opens up new opportunities for accommodating sporadically connected nodes and could be one of the keys to an order-of-magnitude decrease in energy consumption compared to the potential contributions of other technological advances. For example, web applications often need to maintain state at both ends of a connection in order to verify that the authenticated peer is up and running. This introduces keep-alive timers and polling behavior with a high toll on energy consumption. Pentikousis [EEMN] discusses several related scenarios and explains why the current host-centric paradigm, which employs perpetual end-to-end connections, introduces built-in energy inefficiencies, and argues that patches to make currently deployed protocols energy-aware cannot provide for an order-of-magnitude increase in energy efficiency. Second, ICN network elements come with built-in caching capabilities, which is often referred to as "ubiquitous caching". Pushing data objects to caches closer to end-user devices, for example, could significantly reduce the amount of transit traffic in the core network, thereby reducing the energy used for data transport. Guan et al. [EECCN] study the energy efficiency of a CCNx architecture (based on their proposed energy model) and compare it with conventional content dissemination systems such as CDNs and P2P. Their model is based on the analysis of the topological structure and the average hop length from all consumers to the nearest cache location. Their results show that an information-centric approach can be more energy efficient in delivering popular and small-size content. In particular, they also note that different network- element design choices (e.g., the optical bypass approach) can be more energy efficient in delivering infrequently accessed content.
Lee et al. [EECD] investigate the energy efficiency of various network devices deployed in access, metro, and core networks for both CDNs and ICN. They use trace-based simulations to show that an ICN approach can substantially improve the network energy efficiency for content dissemination mainly due to the reduction in the number of hops required to obtain a data object, which can be served by intermediate nodes in ICN. They also emphasize that the impact of cache placement (in incremental deployment scenarios) and local/cooperative content replacement strategies needs to be carefully investigated in order to better quantify the energy efficiencies arising from adopting an ICN paradigm. Third, ICN elements are aware of the user request and its corresponding data response; due to the nature of name-based routing, they can employ power consumption optimization processes for determining their transmission schedule or powering down inactive network interfaces. For example, network coding [NCICN] or adaptive video streaming [COAST] can be used in individual ICN elements so that redundant transmissions, possibly passing through intermediary networks, could be significantly reduced, thereby saving energy by avoiding carrying redundant traffic. Alternatively, approaches that aim to simplify routers, such as [PURSUIT], could also reduce energy consumption by pushing routing decisions to a more energy-efficient entity. Along these lines, Ko et al. [ICNDC] design a data center network architecture based on ICN principles and decouple the router control-plane and data-plane functionalities. Thus, data forwarding is performed by simplified network entities, while the complicated routing computation is carried out in more energy-efficient data centers. To summarize, energy efficiency has been discussed in ICN evaluation studies, but most published work is preliminary in nature. Thus, we suggest that more work is needed in this front. Evaluating energy efficiency does not require the definition of new scenarios or baseline topologies, but does require the establishment of clear guidelines so that different ICN approaches can be compared not only in terms of scalability, for example, but also in terms of power consumption.3.3. Operation across Multiple Network Paradigms
Today the overwhelming majority of networks are integrated with the well-connected Internet with IP at the "waist" of the technology hourglass. However, there is a large amount of ongoing research into alternative paradigms that can cope with conditions other than the standard set assumed by the Internet. Perhaps the most advanced of these is Delay- and Disruption-Tolerant Networking (DTN). DTN is
considered as one of the scenarios for the deployment in Section 2.7, but here we consider how ICN can operate in an integrated network that has essentially disjoint "domains" (a highly overloaded term!) or regions that use different network paradigms and technologies, but with gateways that allow interoperation. ICN operates in terms of named data objects so that requests and deliveries of information objects can be independent of the networking paradigm. Some researchers have contemplated some form of ICN becoming the new waist of the hourglass as the basis of a future reincarnation of the Internet, e.g., [ArgICN], but there are a large number of problems to resolve, including authorization, access control, and transactional operation for applications such as banking, before some form of ICN can be considered as ready to take over from IP as the dominant networking technology. In the meantime, ICN architectures will operate in conjunction with existing network technologies as an overlay or in cooperation with the lower layers of the "native" technology. It seems likely that as the reach of the "Internet" is extended, other technologies such as DTN will be needed to handle scenarios such as space communications where inherent delays are too large for TCP/IP to cope with effectively. Thus, demonstrating that ICN architectures can work effectively in and across the boundaries of different networking technologies will be important. The NetInf architecture, in particular, targets the inter-domain scenario by the use of a convergence-layer architecture [SAIL-B3], and Publish-Subscribe Internet Routing Paradigm (PSIRP) and/or Publish-Subscribe Internet Technology (PURSUIT) is envisaged as a candidate for an IP replacement. The key items for evaluation over and above the satisfactory operation of the architecture in each constituent domain will be to ensure that requests and responses can be carried across the network boundaries with adequate performance and do not cause malfunctions in applications or infrastructure because of the differing characteristics of the gatewayed domains.4. Summary
This document presents a wide range of different application areas in which the use of information-centric network designs have been evaluated in the peer-reviewed literature. Evidently, this broad range of scenarios illustrates the capability of ICN to potentially address today's problems in an alternative and better way than host- centric approaches as well as to point to future scenarios where ICN may be applicable. We believe that by putting different ICN systems
to the test in diverse application areas, the community will be better equipped to judge the potential of a given ICN proposal and therefore subsequently invest more effort in developing it further. It is worth noting that this document collected different kinds of considerations, as a result of our ongoing survey of the literature and the discussion within ICNRG, which we believe would have otherwise remained unnoticed in the wider community. As a result, we expect that this document can assist in fostering the applicability and future deployment of ICN over a broader set of operations, as well as possibly influencing and enhancing the base ICN proposals that are currently available and possibly assist in defining new scenarios where ICN would be applicable. We conclude this document with a brief summary of the evaluation aspects we have seen across a range of scenarios. The scalability of different mechanisms in an ICN architecture stands out as an important concern (cf. Sections 2.1, 2.2, 2.5, 2.6, 2.8, 2.9, and 3.1) as does network, resource, and energy efficiency (cf. Sections 2.1, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, and 3.2). Operational aspects such as network planing, manageability, reduced complexity and overhead (cf. Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.8, and 3.1) should not be neglected especially as ICN architectures are evaluated with respect to their potential for deployment in the real world. Accordingly, further research in economic aspects as well as in the communication, computation, and storage tradeoffs entailed in each ICN architecture is needed. With respect to purely technical requirements, support for multicast, mobility, and caching lie at the core of many scenarios (cf. Sections 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, and 2.6). ICN must also be able to cope when the Internet expands to incorporate additional network paradigms (cf. Section 3.3). We have also seen that being able to address stringent QoS requirements and increase reliability and resilience should also be evaluated following well-established methods (cf. Sections 2.2, 2.8, and 2.9). Finally, we note that new applications that significantly improve the end-user experience and forge a migration path from today's host- centric paradigm could be the key to a sustained and increasing deployment of the ICN paradigm in the real world (cf. Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.6, 2.8, and 2.9).5. Security Considerations
This document does not impact the security of the Internet.
6. Informative References
[RFC5743] Falk, A., "Definition of an Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) Document Stream", RFC 5743, December 2009, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5743>. [RFC5050] Scott, K. and S. Burleigh, "Bundle Protocol Specification", RFC 5050, November 2007, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5050>. [RFC4838] Cerf, V., Burleigh, S., Hooke, A., Torgerson, L., Durst, R., Scott, K., Fall, K., and H. Weiss, "Delay-Tolerant Networking Architecture", RFC 4838, April 2007, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4838>. [RFC5568] Koodli, R., Ed., "Mobile IPv6 Fast Handovers", RFC 5568, July 2009, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5568>. [RFC6920] Farrell, S., Kutscher, D., Dannewitz, C., Ohlman, B., Keranen, A., and P. Hallam-Baker, "Naming Things with Hashes", RFC 6920, April 2013, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6920>. [NetInf] Ahlgren, B. et al., "Design considerations for a network of information", Proc. CoNEXT Re-Arch Workshop, ACM, 2008. [CCN] Jacobson, V., et al., "Networking Named Content", Proc. CoNEXT, ACM, 2009. [CCNx] Mosko, M., Solis, I., and E. Uzun, "CCN 1.0 Protocol Architecture", Project CCNx documentation, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 2013, <http://ccnx.org/pubs/ICN_CCN_Protocols.pdf>. [NDNP] Zhang, L., et al., "Named Data Networking (NDN) Project", NDN Technical Report NDN-0001, Oct. 2010, <http://named-data.net/publications/techreports/>. [PSI] Trossen, D. and G. Parisis, "Designing and realizing an information-centric internet", IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, no. 7, July 2012. [DONA] Koponen, T., et al., "A Data-Oriented (and Beyond) Network Architecture", Proc. SIGCOMM, ACM, 2007. [SoA1] Ahlgren, B., et al., "A survey of information-centric networking", IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, no. 7, July 2012.
[SoA2] Xylomenos, G., et al. "A survey of information-centric networking research", IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials (2013): 1-26. [ICN-SN] Mathieu, B., et al., "Information-centric networking: a natural design for social network applications", IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, no. 7, July 2012. [VPC] Kim, J., et al., "Content Centric Network-based Virtual Private Community", Proc. ICCE, IEEE, 2011. [CBIS] Jacobson, V., et al., "Custodian-Based Information Sharing", IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, no. 7, July 2012. [VPC2] Kim, D. and J. Lee, "CCN-based virtual private community for extended home media service", IEEE Trans. Consumer Electronics, vol. 57, no. 2, May 2011. [CCR] Arianfar, S., et al., "On content-centric router design and implications", Proc. CoNEXT Re-Arch Workshop, ACM, 2010. [VoCCN] Jacobson, V., et al., "VoCCN: Voice-over Content-Centric Networks", Proc. CoNEXT Re-Arch Workshop, ACM, 2009. [NDNpb] Xuan, Y. and Z. Yan, "Enhancing Routing Efficiency in Named Data Network with Piggybacked Interest", Proc. CFI, ACM, 2013. [ACT] Zhu, Z., et al., "ACT: Audio Conference Tool Over Named Data Networking", Proc. SIGCOMM ICN Workshop, ACM, 2011. [G-COPSS] Chen, J., et al., "G-COPSS: A Content Centric Communication Infrastructure for Gaming Applications", Proc. ICDCS, IEEE, 2012. [MMIN] Pentikousis, K., and P. Bertin., "Mobility Management in Infrastructure Networks", IEEE Internet Computing 17, no. 5 (2013): 74-79. [SCES] Allman, M., et al., "Enabling an Energy-Efficient Future Internet through Selectively Connected End Systems", Proc. HotNets-VI, ACM, 2007. [EEMN] Pentikousis, K., "In Search of Energy-Efficient Mobile Networking", IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 48, no. 1, Jan. 2010.
[MOBSURV] Tyson, G., et al., "A Survey of Mobility in Information- Centric Networks: Challenges and Research Directions", Proc. MobiHoc Workshop on Emerging Name-Oriented Mobile Networking Design, ACM, 2012. [N-Scen] Dannewitz, C., et al., "Scenarios and research issues for a Network of Information", Proc. MobiMedia, ICST, 2012. [DTI] Ott, J. and D. Kutscher, "Drive-thru Internet: IEEE 802.11b for 'automobile' users", Proc. INFOCOM, IEEE, 2004. [PSIMob] Xylomenos, G., et al., "Caching and Mobility Support in a Publish-Subscribe Internet Architecture", IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, no. 7, July 2012. [mNetInf] Pentikousis, K. and T. Rautio, "A Multiaccess Network of Information", Proc. WoWMoM, IEEE, 2010. [HybICN] Lindgren, A., "Efficient content distribution in an information-centric hybrid mobile networks", Proc. CCNC, IEEE, 2011. [E-CHANET] M. Amadeo, et al., "E-CHANET: Routing, Forwarding and Transport in Information-Centric Multihop Wireless Networks", Computer Communications, Elsevier, Jan. 2013 online. [MobiA] Meisel, M., et al., "Ad Hoc Networking via Named Data", Proc. MobiArch, ACM 2010. [CCNMANET] Oh, S. Y., et al., "Content Centric Networking in Tactical and Emergency MANETs", Proc. Wireless Days, IFIP, 2010. [RTIND] Wang, L., et al., "Rapid Traffic Information Dissemination Using Named Data", Proc. MobiHoc NoM workshop, ACM, 2012. [CCNVANET] Amadeo, M., et al., "Content-Centric Networking: is that a Solution for Upcoming Vehicular Networks?", Proc. VANET, ACM, 2012. [ABC] Gustafsson, E., and A. Jonsson. "Always best connected", Wireless Communications, IEEE 10.1 (2003): 49-55. [SHARE] Muscariello, L., et al., "Bandwidth and storage sharing performance in information centric networking", Proc. SIGCOMM ICN Workshop, ACM, 2011.
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Acknowledgments
Dorothy Gellert contributed to an earlier draft version of this document. This document has benefited from reviews, pointers to the growing ICN literature, suggestions, comments, and proposed text provided by the following members of the IRTF Information-Centric Networking Research Group (ICNRG), listed in alphabetical order: Marica Amadeo, Hitoshi Asaeda, Claudia Campolo, Luigi Alfredo Grieco, Myeong-Wuk Jang, Ren Jing, Will Liu, Hongbin Luo, Priya Mahadevan, Ioannis Psaras, Spiros Spirou, Dirk Trossen, Jianping Wang, Yuanzhe Xuan, and Xinwen Zhang. The authors would like to thank Mark Stapp, Juan Carlos Zuniga, and G.Q. Wang for their comments and suggestions as part of their open and independent review of this document within ICNRG.Authors' Addresses
Kostas Pentikousis (editor) EICT GmbH Torgauer Strasse 12-15 10829 Berlin Germany EMail: k.pentikousis@eict.de Borje Ohlman Ericsson Research S-16480 Stockholm Sweden EMail: Borje.Ohlman@ericsson.com Daniel Corujo Instituto de Telecomunicacoes Campus Universitario de Santiago P-3810-193 Aveiro Portugal EMail: dcorujo@av.it.pt
Gennaro Boggia Dep. of Electrical and Information Engineering Politecnico di Bari Via Orabona 4 70125 Bari Italy EMail: g.boggia@poliba.it Gareth Tyson School and Electronic Engineering and Computer Science Queen Mary, University of London United Kingdom EMail: gareth.tyson@eecs.qmul.ac.uk Elwyn Davies Trinity College Dublin/Folly Consulting Ltd Dublin, 2 Ireland EMail: davieseb@scss.tcd.ie Antonella Molinaro Dep. of Information, Infrastructures, and Sustainable Energy Engineering Universita' Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria Via Graziella 1 89100 Reggio Calabria Italy EMail: antonella.molinaro@unirc.it Suyong Eum National Institute of Information and Communications Technology 4-2-1, Nukui Kitamachi, Koganei Tokyo 184-8795 Japan Phone: +81-42-327-6582 EMail: suyong@nict.go.jp